Overview: The Gram staining was developed by Danish physician Christian Gram in 1884; he is the most widely employed staining method in bacteriology. Gram staining is the common and most important differential staining technique for microbiology. Gram’s staining helps to differentiate whether the bacteria are Gram positive or Gram Negative and is used to classify bacteria on the basis of their forms, sizes, cellular morphologies but does not help to identify the exact genus and species Purpose: To differentiate the bacteria into Gram positive and Gram negative based on the presents of cell wall composition. Principle: The difference in Gram positive and Gram negative bacterial cell wall bacteria is base on cell well composition. Gram positive cell wall contains a thick layer of peptidoglycan with teichoic acid cross linking and low lipid content, which closes the pores in the cell wall and prevents the stain existing the cell, its resists decolorization of crystal violet and iodin
Overview: Streptococci are Gram-positive cocci, non-motile, non-spore-forming bacteria arranged in pairs or chains in structure. Most of the streptococci are facultative anaerobes and some are obligative anaerobe it requires enriched media (Blood agar). Streptococci are catalase-negative and oxidase negative and the sole product of glucose fermentation is lactic acid with no gas formation is called homofermentative. Streptococcal species may be serologically classified on the basis of cell surface carbohydrate antigens (either cell wall polysaccharides (group A, B, C, F and G streptococci) or (are cell wall lipoteichoic acid (group D Enterococcus sp .). other streptococci are viridans group. Virulence factor: Group A Streptococci M- protein are acid and head stable, tripsin- labile, fibrillar proteins are associated with the outer surface of the cell wall. Hyaluronic acid capsule function to help the organism resist the complement dependent killing by phagocytic cell. Pyrogenic to
Introduction Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are laboratory-produced molecules that are designed to mimic the immune system's ability to recognize and neutralize specific foreign substances, such as bacteria, viruses, and cancer cells. They are made by cloning identical immune cells, called B-cells that produce a single type of antibody, which can then be mass-produced in the laboratory. mAbs are used in a variety of therapeutic applications, including the treatment of cancer, autoimmune disorders, and infectious diseases. They work by binding to specific target molecules, or antigens, on the surface of cells and blocking their function. This can prevent the growth and spread of cancer cells, reduce inflammation in autoimmune disorders, and neutralize viruses and other pathogens. mAbs have revolutionized the treatment of many diseases and are often well-tolerated by patients, with fewer side effects than traditional chemotherapy drugs. However, they can be expensive to produce a
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